Driscoll’s reflective model is a simple three-stage framework for reflection built around three questions — What? So what? Now what? — that move you from describing an experience to understanding it and then planning what to do next. Created by John Driscoll in 1994 for clinical practice, it is one of the most accessible reflective models, which is why it is popular in Australian nursing, midwifery, and allied-health programs and ideal for shorter reflective assignments. This guide explains all three stages with prompt questions, works through a clinical example, compares Driscoll with Gibbs and Kolb, and answers the questions students ask most.
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What is Driscoll’s reflective model?
Driscoll’s reflective model is a three-stage cycle of reflection structured around the questions What?, So what?, and Now what? John Driscoll introduced it in 1994 (and refined it in 2007), adapting a questioning sequence originally suggested by Terry Borton in 1970 for use in clinical and nursing practice. Its defining feature is simplicity: three plain-English questions guide you from a factual description of an experience, through making sense of it, to a concrete plan for the future.
That simplicity is its strength and its limit. Because it has only three stages, Driscoll’s model is quick to apply and well suited to short reflective pieces, reflective journals, and busy clinical settings where a long framework is impractical. But the brevity means you must work harder to bring analytical depth into the “So what?” stage, since the model does not prompt you for feelings and evaluation as explicitly as Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle does. In Australia it aligns with the reflective-practice expectations of the Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia (NMBA).
Model
- 1 What?
- 2 So what?
- 3 Now what?
The three stages of Driscoll’s model explained
The three stages of Driscoll’s model are What?, So what?, and Now what? Each is a question that opens a different kind of thinking — description, analysis, and action. The table gives the purpose of each stage and the prompt questions that unlock it.
| Stage | Purpose | Prompt questions |
|---|---|---|
| 1. What? | Describe the experience factually. | What happened? What did I do? What did others do? What was the result? |
| 2. So what? | Analyse and make sense of it. | How did I feel? Why did it matter? What does theory say? What have I learned? |
| 3. Now what? | Plan future action. | What will I do differently? What support do I need? How will I improve? |
1. What? — describing the experience
The “What?” stage is a factual, objective account of what happened, with no interpretation yet. Set out the situation: what occurred, what you did, what others did, and what the outcome was. Keep it concise — like the description stage in other models, this orients the reader but is not where the marks live. A common error is spending too long here; aim for roughly a quarter of your word count and resist the urge to start analysing before the next stage.
2. So what? — making sense of it
The “So what?” stage is the analytical heart of the model, where you interpret the experience and connect it to theory. This is where you explore how you felt, why the experience matters, what it reveals about your practice, and — crucially — what the literature says about it. Because Driscoll’s model has only three stages, this question has to carry the work that Gibbs spreads across Feelings, Evaluation, Analysis, and Conclusion. Bring in evidence and clinical or professional theory here; without it, the reflection stays descriptive and loses marks.
Stuck on the “So what?” stage? It carries most of the analysis in Driscoll’s model, and connecting experience to theory under deadline is hard. Our subject-matched writers build framework-led reflections that markers grade highly.
3. Now what? — planning action
The “Now what?” stage turns your analysis into a specific plan for future practice. Drawing on what the “So what?” stage revealed, identify concrete actions: what you will do differently, what skills or knowledge you need to develop, and what support or resources will help. Vague intentions (“I will communicate better”) score poorly; specific, testable plans (“I will use the ISBAR structure for every handover and seek feedback from my preceptor”) score well. This stage closes the loop, because the plan shapes your next experience and begins the cycle again.
A worked example: a clinical placement reflection
Here is a condensed example of Driscoll’s model applied to a nursing-placement scenario. (Use it as a model for structure, not as text to copy.)
| Stage | Worked example |
|---|---|
| What? | During placement I was asked to reassure an anxious patient before a procedure, but I rushed the explanation and the patient remained distressed. |
| So what? | I felt under time pressure and fell back on clinical jargon. Patient-centred communication theory shows that anxiety rises when information is unclear; my approach addressed the task but not the patient’s emotional needs. I learned that reassurance requires pace and plain language, not just accurate content. |
| Now what? | Next time I will slow down, use plain language, check understanding with teach-back, and acknowledge the patient’s anxiety explicitly. I will ask my preceptor to observe and give feedback on my next three patient interactions. |
Notice how the “So what?” stage does the heavy lifting — it carries the feelings, the theory, and the learning that other models split across several stages. Getting genuine analytical depth into this single question is the key to a strong Driscoll reflection.
How to write a reflective essay using Driscoll’s model
To structure a reflective essay around Driscoll’s model, use each question as a section and weight your word count heavily toward “So what?”, where the analysis and marks sit. A reliable structure for a 1,000–1,500-word reflective piece looks like this:
- Introduction (~10%): name Driscoll’s model, introduce the experience, and state what the reflection will show.
- What? (~20%): a concise, factual account of the experience.
- So what? (~45%): the core — feelings, analysis, and links to theory and evidence.
- Now what? (~20%): a specific, testable plan for future practice.
- Conclusion (~5%): brief summary of the learning.
Write in the first person (“I felt”, “I realised”, “I will”) — reflective writing expects it — and reference in your unit’s required style (APA 7 is most common in nursing; see our APA 7 referencing guide). Because Driscoll is so compact, it is the ideal model when the word count is tight or the brief asks for a short reflection.
Driscoll vs Gibbs vs Kolb
The three models are related but differ in length and detail. Driscoll is the shortest and simplest; Gibbs is the most detailed and prompt-driven; Kolb is the underlying learning theory. Choosing the right one depends on your word count and what your brief asks for.
| Model | Stages | Best for |
|---|---|---|
| Driscoll (1994) | 3 (What? So what? Now what?) | Short reflections, journals, tight word counts. |
| Gibbs (1988) | 6 stages | Detailed reflective essays; students new to reflection. |
| Kolb (1984) | 4 stages | Explaining the theory of experiential learning. |
A useful rule: if your assignment is short or your unit values concision, Driscoll is the safest choice; if you need to demonstrate depth across feelings, evaluation, and analysis, Gibbs gives you more structure; and if you need to discuss how learning happens theoretically, cite Kolb. Driscoll’s three questions actually map neatly onto a compressed version of Gibbs, so you can scale up if a marker wants more.
Is Driscoll’s model cyclical or linear?
Driscoll’s model is best understood as cyclical rather than a one-off sequence. Although you answer the three questions in order, the “Now what?” stage produces a plan that you then carry into your next experience — which becomes a new “What?” to reflect on. In this way the model loops, supporting continuous improvement in the same spirit as Gibbs and Kolb. For a single assignment you usually present one pass through the three questions, but it is worth noting in your conclusion that the action plan feeds the next cycle, because that shows you understand reflection as an ongoing practice rather than a single tick-box exercise — exactly the mindset professional standards expect of nurses and other practitioners.
The origins: from Borton to Driscoll
Driscoll’s three questions did not appear from nowhere. In 1970, the educator Terry Borton proposed a simple “What? So what? Now what?” sequence as a framework for teaching and personal growth. John Driscoll adapted this sequence for clinical supervision and nursing practice in 1994, adding the prompt questions and the practice-focused orientation that make it useful in healthcare, and refined it again in 2007. Understanding this lineage matters for an assignment: if you cite the model, attribute the original questioning structure to Borton (1970) and the clinical reflective model to Driscoll (1994/2007). Markers notice when a student traces a framework accurately to its source rather than treating it as anonymous textbook content, and it demonstrates the kind of scholarly care that lifts a reflection’s overall quality.
Bringing depth into a three-stage model
The most common worry students have about Driscoll is that three questions cannot show enough depth for a higher grade. The answer is to load the “So what?” stage deliberately. Three moves help. First, separate feeling from analysis within that stage — acknowledge the emotion honestly, then step back and analyse it, so you cover the ground Gibbs assigns to both Feelings and Analysis. Second, anchor your interpretation in at least one piece of literature or professional theory, applied to your experience rather than described in the abstract. Third, connect the experience to the relevant Australian professional standard — for nursing, the NMBA Registered Nurse Standards for Practice — which grounds the reflection in the discipline. Done well, a Driscoll reflection can be every bit as analytically rich as a longer Gibbs essay; the structure is leaner, but the thinking does not have to be.
Common mistakes when using Driscoll’s model
- Over-describing in “What?”. The biggest trap — spending too long on description leaves no room for the analysis that earns marks.
- A shallow “So what?”. Without theory and evidence, the analysis collapses back into description.
- A vague “Now what?”. “I’ll do better” is not a plan; markers want specific, achievable actions.
- Forgetting feelings. Because the model does not prompt for them explicitly, students often omit emotional honesty — include it in “So what?”.
- Writing in the third person. Reflective writing is personal; first person is expected.
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Frequently asked questions
What are the three stages of Driscoll’s reflective model?
The three stages of Driscoll’s reflective model are What?, So what?, and Now what? The “What?” stage describes the experience factually, the “So what?” stage analyses it and links it to theory, and the “Now what?” stage plans concrete action for the future. You work through them in that order, and the plan feeds back into your next experience.
Who created Driscoll’s reflective model and when?
Driscoll’s reflective model was created by John Driscoll in 1994, who adapted a questioning sequence first proposed by Terry Borton in 1970 for use in clinical and nursing practice. Driscoll refined the model in 2007, and it is now widely used in nursing, midwifery, and allied-health education for its simplicity and clinical relevance.
What is the difference between Driscoll and Gibbs?
The difference between Driscoll and Gibbs is length and detail: Driscoll’s model has three broad questions (What? So what? Now what?), while Gibbs’ model has six explicit stages including separate Feelings and Evaluation steps. Driscoll is quicker and better for short reflections; Gibbs provides more structure and depth for longer reflective essays. Driscoll’s three questions map onto a compressed version of Gibbs.
How do you write a “So what?” stage in Driscoll’s model?
To write the “So what?” stage in Driscoll’s model, analyse the experience rather than describe it: explore how you felt, why the experience mattered, what it revealed about your practice, and what relevant theory or evidence says about it. Because this single stage carries most of the analysis in Driscoll’s model, it should be the longest section and must include links to the literature to demonstrate genuine reflection.
Is Driscoll’s model good for short reflective assignments?
Yes, Driscoll’s model is particularly good for short reflective assignments because its three plain-English questions are quick to apply and do not require the six separate sections that a Gibbs reflection does. When the word count is tight or your brief asks for a brief reflection, Driscoll lets you cover description, analysis, and action efficiently while still showing structured reflective thinking.
Do you write Driscoll’s reflective model in first or third person?
You write Driscoll’s reflective model in the first person (“I did”, “I felt”, “I will”), because reflection is about your own experience and learning. First-person voice is expected in reflective writing — one of the few academic genres where it is encouraged. Check your unit guide, but third-person reflective writing almost always reads as evasive and impersonal.
Can Driscoll’s model be used outside nursing?
Yes, although Driscoll designed his model for clinical practice, it can be applied to any field that involves reflection on experience, including education, social work, counselling, and business. The three questions — What?, So what?, Now what? — are general enough to structure reflection on any significant experience, which is part of why the model has spread well beyond its original nursing context.
Who originally created the “What? So what? Now what?” questions?
The “What? So what? Now what?” questions were originally proposed by educator Terry Borton in 1970 as a framework for teaching and personal development. John Driscoll later adapted Borton’s sequence for clinical supervision and nursing practice in 1994, adding prompt questions and a practice focus. When citing the model, credit Borton (1970) for the original structure and Driscoll (1994/2007) for the clinical reflective model.
How long should a Driscoll reflection be?
A Driscoll reflection has no fixed length, but the model suits shorter pieces of around 800 to 1,500 words, where its three-question structure is most efficient. Whatever the total, weight roughly 45% of the word count to the “So what?” stage, since that is where the analysis and marks sit, and keep the “What?” description concise so it does not crowd out the deeper thinking.
Does Driscoll’s model include a feelings stage?
Driscoll’s model does not have a separate feelings stage, unlike Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle. Instead, you address your emotions within the “So what?” stage, alongside your analysis and links to theory. Because the model does not prompt for feelings explicitly, students often forget to include them — so make a point of acknowledging honestly how the experience felt before you move into the analytical interpretation.
